Reference no: EM13879660

You will need to summarize and comment on the two following articles from each researcher.

Each written summary must not exceed two pages with ft 12 (Times New Roman& Double spaced) - ***not in point form.

Follow the same instructions forthe following 2questions(total of six pages with six studies individually summarized + commented).

1. WILL SHEAD - GAMBLING

STUDY 1: Probability Discounting of Gains and Losses: Implications for Risk Attitudes and Impulsivity (Shead & Hodgins, 2009)

• A negative correlation between the probability discounting of gains and losses was observed, consistent in the idea that individuals' choices on probability discounting tasks reflect their general attitude towards risk, regardless of gins, whether the outcomes are gains or losses.

• Neither probability discounting of gains nor probability discounting of losses were reliably correlated with discouting of delayed gains, a result that is inconsistent with the idea that probability discounting and delay discounting both reflect a general tendency towards impulsivily

• Hyperboloid humans considered to be worth less than the same amount of gain available for certain.

• Correspondingly, risk-averse individuals discount gains steeply because they overweight the possibly of gaining nothing while underweighting the possibility of gaining nothing while underweighting the possiblilty of a large gain; and they discount losses shallowly because they overweight the possibility of losing a large amount and underweight the possibility of a small loss.

• In contrast, risk-averse individuals should show steep probability discounting of gains but shallow probability discounting of losses.

• Delay discounting: many behaviour analysis favor a definition of impulsivity that includes an inability to delay gratification, as evidenced, by preference for smaller, more immediate gains over larger, delayed gain and higher rates of delay discounting

• As rates of discounting increase, the value of k increases and the discounting curve becomes steeper.

• The relation between delay discounting and probability discouting of gains and losses is also of considerable importance, given that is often assumed that impulsivity is a trait affecting choices involving probabilistic outcomes as well as choices involving delayed outcomes.

• Apparatus: each participants completed three computerized discounting tasks: delay discounting 5 of gains, probability discounting of gains, and probability discounting of losses.

• Data Analysis hyperboloid: discounting functions were fitted to the data for individual participants and to the group medians for each discounting task using on linear least squares regression implement by Microsoft Excel's solver add-in. In addition, degree of discounting was measured by calculating the area under the discounting curve.

• When the correlations among the AUCs for the different discounting tasks were examined, there was little evidence of a relation between delay discounting and discounting of either probalistic gains of losses.

• The correlation between delay discouting and probability discounting of gains was not significant, r(53) 5.12, p = 5.268

• The only correlation of AUC measures that approached significance was that between discounting of probabilistic gains and discounting of probabilistic losses, r(52) 2.26, p = 5.062 with prep 5.97.

• With respect to the form of the probability discounting function when participants' choices lead to real gains and losses, results showed that indeed, probability discounting was well described by the hyperboloid function.

• With respect to the pattern of correlations among discounting of probabilistic gains, probabilistic losses, and delayed gains, the degree to which delayed gains were discounted was not correlated with the degree to which probabilistic gains or probabilistic losses were discounted.

• The important finding was a negative correlative between degree of probability discouting of gains and probability discounting of losses which had a high probability of replication, prep 5.97, indicating that the correlations between probability discounting of gains and losses would be negative in 97 out of 100 replications of the preset study.

• Taken together, these findings suggest that individuals who discount probabilistic gains at lower rates tend to discount probabilistic losses at higher rates, and vice versa.

• Such a hypothesis predicts a positive correlation because risk-sseeking individuals should shallowly discount probabilistic outcomes and risk-averse individuals should discount such items steeply, regardless of whether the outcomes are gains or losses.

• Previous discounting research has shown that delay discounting rates change as a function of age, and it is not unlikely that probability discounting rates do so too.

• Another study in which the participants were all college students found no differnces in the discounting of delayed gains between those who gambled and those who did not, although the gambles did discount probabilistic gains less steeply than the nongamblers.

• Conclusion: The present study is the first to examine the relations between delay discounting of gains and probability discounting of both gains and losses.

STUDY 2: Differences between Poker Players and Non-Poker Playing Gamblers (Shead & Hodgins, Scharf, 2008)

• Young adults who play poker for money also reported that, thinking back over the past two years, they were more likely than older adults to be playing more poker now than two years prior.

• These findings not only appear to indicate that differences between between poker players and Non-Poker-Playing Gamblers playing poker for money has increased in recent years, but also suggest that younger players have been particularly taken with the "pokerboom" compared to older adults.

• The majority of these poker players reported playing with their friends or with family; 21% reported playing poker on the Internet and 3.2% reported playing online on a weekly basis.

• Interestingly, 6% of poker players said they would see themselves making a living from playing poker.

• After deletion of 19 cases with missing values, data from 494 participants were available for further analysis - 190non-poker players and 304 poker players.

• Poker players who reported that they played poker online, in casinos, or in nonregulated card rooms in the past year (N.E. Shead et al.)

• Poker players were asked to indicate which factors, if any, influenced them to start playing poker

• The majority of poker players reported that they began playing because their friends; 43 % reported that seeing poker shows on television influenced them to start playing, 48% reported that curiosity was an influence, while a smaller percentage of players were influenced by advertising for poker or other factors.

• Poker players were also asked to report the proportion of time they played poker in each of four different settings

• As a group, poker players spent the majority of time playing poker at home with friends or family while the remaining time was spent playing in casinos, online, or in non-regulated live settings.

• Finally, poker players were asked whether they preferred poker over other forms of gambling and, if so, why they preferred poker.

• If they preferred poker, they were asked the open-ended questions: Why do you prefer poker over other forms of gambling?

o Content analysis found that participants' responses indicated four main reasons for preferring poker: the skill factor inherent in poker; the social aspect of poker; poker is more exiting or funl and poker is easier or has better odds of winning.

• Primary reason for preferring poker over other gambling activities: Skill factor/more control over outcome Social activity/competition. More exciting/fun Easier/better odds. Poker players who preferred poker for the socializing aspects were compared with those who preferred it for the skills factor to examine differences in the proportion of time spent playing online in casinos and with family/friends.

• Independent sample t-tests of log- transformed proportions showed that players who preferred poker because of the skill factor spent a greater proportion of time playing poker online compared to players who preferred it for the socializing aspect, t(141) 5.1, p = 0.001.

• Some of the poker players reported the average amount of time they spent playing poker per session and the average amount of money spent on poker in a typical month.

• Poker players spent more time player poker per session compared to all forms of gambling, t(233) 7.1, p =0.001.

• First, supporting recent research on poker, the current study found that regular gamblers who include poker as one of their gambling activities are more likely to be male and younger than those who do not play poker.

• Online/casino poker players were more likely to be male, have higher scores on a problem gambling severity measure, spend more time gambling per session, spend more money on gambling per month, and gamble more often compared to "social" poker players or non-poker players.

• The results of the poker questionnaire indicate that poker players are drawn to hr game largely because of the opportunity to play with their friends.

• When amounts of time and money spent on all forms of gambling were compared to amounts spent playing poker specifically, the results showed that poker players spent more time but less money playing poker

• The results of the second set of univariate analyses and logistic regression highlight important differences between those who play poker online or in casino and those who only play poker with friends and family or non-poker players

• New research on poker playing should closely examine various characteristics in poker players by asking specific questions about perceptions of skill involved in poker and involvement in online and casino poker play.

2. BRADLEY BERGEY - STUDENT SUCCESS

STUDY 1: Teaching High School Biology Student to Coordinate Text and Diagrams: Relations with Transfer, Effort, and Spatial Skill (Bergey, Cromley, Newcombe, 2015).

• Treatments involved students generating explanations, completing a diagram with graphic elements or completing a diagram with text.

• Given the centrality of inferential processes in text and diagram comprehension, it is no surprise that several interventions have aimed to increase students' inference in diagrams.

• U.S national science standards call for students to create their own diagrams

• When reviewing literature on student-contructed diagrams, recognizning that there are important differences in the cognitive demand of a wholly constructed versus a partially-completed diagram.

• The domain of chemistry uses highly conventionalized diagram types, which constrains the diagram construction task for students.

• In the present research, we compared three instructional ocnditons embedded in the regular biology curriculum and implemented in situ in science classes

• In prior research, showed that self-explanation was as effective as a conventios of diagrams intervention and that conventions of diagrams is significantly better diagram comprehension than a business-as-usual control

• Based on mixed results for literal comprehension diagram, scales in both the self-explanation literature and the student-constructed diagrams literature, we a made a weak predictions that the interventions would increase literal diagram scores

• Biology diagram comprehension: We develop an 18min, 25 item biology diagram comprehension measure, design to tap students' ability to extract the main idea from textbook visual representations that had not been taught in our interventions and hence a measure of near transfer of diagram comprehension

• "The Self-Explanation workbook included scanned images of the diagrams together with explanations of relevant diagrammatic conventions, a series of questions that target how conventions of diagrams are applied in the textbook diagram, and questions that askd students to drawing inferences about the biology content presented.

• Student completed verbal workbook: The student-Completed Diagrams

o Verbal workbook also included scanned images of every diagram together with explanations of conventions, questions targeting how the conventions we are applied in the textbook diagram, and an exercise in which students in pairs wrote in substantial missing verbal portions of diagrams

• Sudent completed visual workbook: Student-completed diagrams
o Visual workbook included the same scanned images of every diagram, explanation of conventions and warmup exercise ; the visual completion exercises required students to graphically construct portions of diagrams, rather than verbally completing them.

• The rationale for completing a partial diagram rather than drawing an entirely new diagram was chosen for pragmatic purposes, in order to encourage student engagement in thetask and also to prevent verbatim copying of diagrams from students' textbooks.

• One questions required mapping information from a line diagram of pea pods toa line diagram of flowers colours

• We randomized students within pairs until we ensured that the selected and non-selected groups had similar mean inferential diagram score and inferential diagrams scores showeda similar correlation with workbook scores

• By contrast, when students wrote explanatory labels that pointed to specific parts of the diagram, they must inspect that part of the diagram and write explanation that follows the order of the process.

• Our findings add to the literature by dhowing significant gains in near transfer on uninistructed diagrams and far transfer to an uninstructed domain, even though, or perhaps because, our student-completeion condition presumably demanded less of students than did prior research using fully-constructed diagrams

• Students in the self-explanation condition increased signifcatnly on biology knowledge and overall diagram comprehension but the gains in diagram scores were driven by gains in inferential items.

• For a number of non-significant findings in their student-completed diagrams, experiments namely, that the dsign of student-completed diagrams can impose too much cognitive load. Our results suggest that level of demand on students may be a potential moderator that can explain why some student completed diagrams conditons results in gains in knowledge, literal, and inferential comprehension, while some studies do not.

• The biology diagram items were from the same textbook that the students used in class ; it is possible that diagrams from other sources could differ in some systematic way, which could affect transfer.

• Anecdotally, teachers often expressed surprise at how little students were using diagrams and how little they were learning from the diagrams before their intervention.

• Teachers responded adaptively to students misunderstandings of the diagrams, and addresses these misunderstandings by reffering to the text and/or the diagram and by giving verbal explanation of the biology concepts.

STUDY 2: Effects of three diagram instruction methods on transfer of diagram comprehension skills: The critical role of inference while learning (Cromley, bergey, Fitzhugh, Newcombe, Wills, Shipley, Tanaka, 2013).

• Scientific information from multiple representation must frequently be combined, compared, integrated, related, coordinated, or translated, all of which involve mapping information from one representation onto information from another representation in order to fully comprehend the depicted phenomenon.

• Coordinating multiple representationsrefers to the awareness of when and how to switch between representations when multiple related representation are presented

• Coordinating multiple represenations and the design, functions, and task model coordinating multiple representations is a challenging yet critical skills for the comprehension of illustrated scientific text

• Encompassses a set of skills used when a learner moves back and forth between 2 or more representation of a single phenomenon and attempts to understand both representations together.

• Coordinating multiple representatiosn is a complex skill, in that the two or more representations often have both overlapping and unique information and also may have overlapping and unique cognitive affordances.

• Coordinating multiple representations is particularly challenging because in addition to mastering each representation individually, coordinating representations requires linking partially overlapping reprsentations and sequencing the coordination process.

• One common task demanded in reading middle and high school science textbook is coordinating representations presented in text with representions present in diagrams and pictures

• Coordinating multiple representions is a key process in Ainsworth's Design Function, and Tasks model or learning with representations.

• Design within the DeFT framework refer sto aspects of each representation and each set of represantations, such as the extent to which two or more representations present unique and overlapping information and the sequence or spatial arrangement of representations.

• Tasks refer to what learners are asked to do with the represantions, including the level of task challenge and the role of individual differences, including famialirity with each representation type, topic knowledge, working memory capacity, and sptial skills.

• In the context of learning biology, coordinating multiple representation is an essential task, and one that often involves coordinating representations that vary in several dimensions.

• These types of visual representations vary in their level of abstraction, from relatistic deceptions of natural phenomena to highly abstract symbolic coordinating multiple representations.

• Prior training studies on coordinating multiple representations:
o Several students many conducted with undergraduate populations in laboratory settings, have Demonstrated that manipulations can effectively support learners' ability to coordinate multiple representations.

• The instructional focus on coordinating multiple representations was in addition to instruction on conventional features of diagrams, which were deemed to be necessary for coordinating meaning across representations

• We compared effects of an instructional method aimed to develop skills in coordinating multiple representations and understanding convential features of diagrams with that or a simple instructional method aimed at developing an understanding of conventions of diagrams alone.

• In school 1, representations most commonly illusted biological phenomena at the macroscopic and molecular levels, with many representation including both; common types of represention included photographs, and drawing, with many figures including more than one type.

• The COD CMR workbooks contained the same questions that appeared in the COD workbook with additional tasks requiring the coordination of multiple representations; questions requiring the coordination of multiple representation constituted 40% and 35% of total points in the COD CMR workbook.

• In school 2, representations most frequently illustrated biological phenomena at macroscopic, molecular and symbolic levels, with many representations including more than one level.

• Representations within each school covered a broad range of topics and included a wide range of representation levels, types, knowledge and conventions as illustrated in Table 1.

• Where relevant, diagram decoding tips highlighted how features of representations may change from representation to another.

• Perhaps most importantly, our results indicate learn ing effects when students are coordinating multiple representations found in their actual textbooks, where text is accompanied by a diverse set of visual representations.

3. MEG TERNES - FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY

STUDY 1: Expert Testimony on Laboratory Witnesses (Yuille, Ternes, Cooper, 2010).

• The majority of eyewitness research has been conducted in the laboratory rather than in the field, thereby examining laboratory witnesses, not actual eye witnesses. Although there is some consensus among some eyewitness experts that certain factors related to laboratory witness performance are robust enough to be discussed in court or applied to the criminal justice system. We suggest that much more research needs to be conducted to assess the generalizability of laboratory within research to most realms of the eyewitness context.

• As some research demonstrates that actual eyewitnesses behave differently than laboratory eyewitnesses, we suggest that psychologist who are required to consider eyewitness issues in the criminal justice system make an effort to differentiate between the findings of laboratory studies and the findings of field studies.

• More than a decade ago, after reviewing laboratory research on witness memory, Ebbesen and Konecni concluded that expert testimony on witness memory has greater prejudicial than probative value.

• Psychologist conducting research in the laboratory typically label their research "Eyewitnessmemory" research.

• For obvious ethical reasons, the controlled research in the laboratory context cannot stress or traumatize an individual.

• Laboratory witness are often aware that the event is staged, that there will be little or no consequence as a result of the eyewitness account provided or the eye witness identification made, and are often informed of upcoming memory tests, a happening that does transpire in the real world.

• Before examining the extent to which laboratory witnesses and eyewitnesses are the same, some thoughts are provided on why the vast majority of studies have used laboratory witnesess instead of actual witnesses.

• A reason for employing laboratory witnesses as opposed to eyewitness is cost. Research with actual eyewitness is messy, complex, difficult to achieve, and costly.

• Research studies with laboratory witnesses are easily conducted in a shorter period of time and at a lower cost.

• Another reason for relying on laboratory witnesses is the belief held by many researchers that laboratory witness and eyewitnesses are essentially the same.

• The thousands of laboratory witness studies done over the past three decades have generally employed excellent research design procedures, and the results of that research provide a solid foundation for understanding laboratory witness behavior.

• Laboratory research on witness memory is necessary to investigate effects that cannot be easily studied in the field, such as the effect of viewing angle on memory for faces.

• Whether laboratory witnesses and eyewitnesses behave alike is an empirical question, yet some have generalized to eyewitnesses without empirically demonstrating that their assumption of the equivalency between laboratory witnesses and eyewitnesses is valid.

• When asked whether laboratory witness research applies to an actual crime situation, one expert witness did not agree that research evidence support that there are different memory processes in an eyewitness event, whether you are the victim or the witness, than there are in the normal ones.

• Although most laboratory witness researchers have not attempted to test the generalizability of their findings with eyewitnesses, some researchers have examined eyewitness performance

• Laboratory witnesses shown a film in which no weapon is used tend to report more details about the event and are better able to identify the "Culprit" than laboratory witnesses who see the same film containing a weapon.

• Although more research is needed before any broad conclusions can be drawn, the preliminary results from research with eyewitness suggest that laboratory witness findings on the wrapon focus effects are not generalizable to actual witnesses.

• The weapon focus phenomenon represents one domain of eyewitness performance in which limited research suggests that generalization from laboratory witnesses to eyewitnesses cannot be made.

• The research generally has involved either having laboratory witness observe an event after or while being stress through the use of external stimulus. Or having them observe a video/slide show of a violent or disturbing event.

• Lineup procedures research with laboratory witnesses exploring lineup procedures has grnerally shown that the sequential, double-blind method produces fewer false identifications than the traditional simultaneous lineup procedure.

STUDY 2: Eyewitness Memory and Eyewitness Identification Performance in Adults with Intellectual Disabilities (Ternes & Yuille, 2008)

• Although eyewitness identification has been studied extensively for the past 30 years, very little research has focused on eyewitness identification in individuals with intellectual disabilities.

• Participants with intellectual disabilities were significantly more likely to acquiesce to one of the suggestive questions than comparison group particpants, but the two participant groups did not differ in likelihood of acquiescence for the other suggestive questions.

• Knowing their capacity to provide eyewitness testimony would help police + judicial system to ensure that the statement of individuals with intellectual disabilities are considered appropriately

• The purpose of the present study is to determine the eyewitness memory abilities of adults with intellectual disabilities by comparing the eyewitness memory and eyewitness identification performance of adults with intellectual disabilities to adults without intellectual disabilities.

• Individuals with intellectual disabilities are particularly vulnerable to sexual abuse and exploitation for several reasons, including their life-long dependence on care-givers, relatively powerless position in society.

• Eyewitness memory in individuals with intellectual disabilities: In an attempt to address these concerns, some researchers have examined the ability of individuals with intellectual disabilities to provide eyewitness testimony.

• Ericson & Isaacs found that participants who had intellectual disabilities made as many correct identifications in target-present lineups as comparison group participants who did not have intellectual disabilities.

• Interviewing individuals w. intellectual disabilities: Suggestibility, acquiescense, anysaying and confabulation:
o Researchers have been particularly concerned with the issues of interrogative suggestability, acquiescence, naysaying and confabulation in individuals w. intellectual disabilities.

• Since individuals with intellectual disabilities have been found to be suggestible, several teams of researchers have considered the use of various interview techniques with this population

• The present research is to test the eyewitness identification abilities of individuals with intellectual disabilities, adults with inllectual disabilities interacted with a confederate.

• Hypothesis 1: Based on the research reviewed above, it was hypothesized that accurarcy rates on the identification task would similar for the group made up of individuals with intellectual disabilities and the comparison group when the target was present, but that group made up of individuals with intellectual disabilities would show an increased tendency to guess when the target was not there.

• Based on the research reviewed, it was hypothesized that the participants w. intellectual disabilities would be more suggestible to the misleading question than the comparison group participants.

• The participants with intellectual disabilities were recruited through the developmental disabilities association of Vancouver, and had a mean age of 45.6

• In response to open questions, participants with intellectual disabilities provided a mean of 1.65 each, 97% of which were correct

• Contrary to expectations, for the target present procedure, comparison group particpants performed better than participants w. intellectual disabilities. For target-absent procedure, participants with intellectual disabitlities and comparison group participants did not significantly differ in their performance.

• The comparison group participants performed better than the chance for the target-absent procedure while participants w. intellectual disabilities did not.

• These results differ from those of Ericson & Isaac's study, where participants with intellectual disabilities made as many correct idenfiticaitons in target-present lineups as comparison group participants who did not have intellectual disabilities, and were more likely than comparison group participants to guess and make false identification in target-absent lineups.

• Given the reported similarties betweetn adults w. intellectual disabilities and children of a similar condition, it could be assumed that adults with intellectual disabilities are also prone to making a choice.

• Since all of the participants with intellectual disabilities in the present study had to have the capacity to give consent, the range of intellectual disabilities was quite limited.

• Future impliciations in for reliability during police interrogations