Reference no: EM133876875

Question

"Skeletal homeostasis depends on a very narrow range of plasma calcium and phosphate concentrations, which are maintained by the endocrine system.30 Therefore endocrine dysfunction ultimately can cause metabolic bone disease. In addition to declining levels of sex steroids, the hormones most commonly associated with osteoporosis are parathyroid hormone, cortisol, thyroid hormone, and growth hormone. Excessive intakes of caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine along with low body fat have been considered risk factors. In addition, significant differences in the levels of trace elements (zinc, copper, manganese) were noted in the bones and hair of unaffected individuals compared with those with osteoporosis. The development of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis increases bone formation and builds more muscle mass. In theory, selectively affecting bone, muscle mass, and other desired sites, while not affecting lipid or estrogen levels or blood pressure, side effects can be controlled but since the direct effects of SERMs on bone are not yet known, this remains a clinical challenge.