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The idea of reference counting is to maintain, for every object, the total number of references to that object, i.e. the number of "incoming" pointers. Whenever the number of references is zero we know that the object is not accessible through any pointers, and thus it is garbage. Also, whenever we choose to delete some useless object,we have to recursively check that object to see if it contains pointers to other objects; if so, we have decrement the reference counters for those objects as well. One problem of reference counting, though, is how to deal with cycles. Suppose object A points to B, and B points to A. If these objects can only be reached through each other, we have to free them too, even though their counters are not zero! Note that cycles can common inmany data structures; for example, consider a doubly-linked list. The commonly adopted solution to this problem is to run mark-sweep now and then, in order to remove cyclic references, and then run normal reference counting on the rest of the time.
Inverted page table In page table the page table has one entry for every page that the process is using. The operating system must translate this reference into a physical memo
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What is dispatch latency? The time taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and begin another running is known as dispatch latency.
Identifying parallelism A formal way to identify parallelism in an activity is to draw a task dependence graph in a directed graph in which each vertex represents a task to
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