Reference no: EM131133294

Why I believe it is important to study history

Scholarly Activity

After completing the unit and reviewing the Stearns article, answer the following in your own words: "Why I believe it is important to study history."

First, examples from this unit must be utilized as part of your answer, and topics may include, but are not limited to, the following:

- describing the possible migration of ancient peoples; - the influence that trade, agriculture, and tools had on movements; and - how colonial actions and colonization impacted those among whom the colonists settled.

Second, when studying the movements of Native American peoples and European exploration during the 15th and 16th centuries, what does history tell us about the motivations of God, gold, and glory? Why do you believe it was important to study these motivating factors?

Your response should be a minimum of two pages in length. All sources used must be cited and referenced. Paraphrased or quoted material must have accompanying citations.

STUDY GUIDE

I.

Pre-1600 America

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit I

Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Describe pre-Columbian American cultures with an emphasis on identifying Native American tribes and their associated settlements, tools, agriculture, and trade.

1.1 Recognize migration patterns among the earliest inhabitants of the Americas.

5. Analyze the impact foreign aggression had on American civilian morale.

5.1 Discuss the motivations for increased exploration in the Americas prior to 1600.

5.2 Compare experiences, practices, and outcomes of various explorers in pre-colonial America.

Reading Assignment

Lytle, R. (2013, January 14). 5 tips to succeed in an online course. US News. Retrieved from

https://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/articles/2013/01/14/5-tips-to-succeed-in-anonline-course

Montreal Gazette. (2008, May 17). Beringia: Humans were here. Retrieved from

https://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/saturdayextra/story.html?id=2a31375e-e834-407db8db-2a0010ad4acf

Stearns, P. (1998, January 1). Why study history? Retrieved from https://www.historians.org/about-aha-andmembership/aha-history-and-archives/archives/why-study-history-%281998%29

Unit Lesson

Why Study History?

Why is it important to study history? Philosopher George Santayana's famous adage, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it," has justifiably stood the test of time, but in practice, this only scratches the surface. Historical study opens the door to culture, communication, and perspective on the world.

This course will provide the opportunity to develop these skills using past events of relative significance as the basis for communication in an academic setting, the application of cultural analysis using multiple academic methods, and honing the ability to evaluate the reliability of sources and information. The activities in this course will challenge you to embrace the settings and events of significance with a focus on discerning, analysis, and learning how to interpret the world of the past using the methods of today. Additional introduction to the benefits of historical study can be found in an article by historian Peter N. Stearns, entitled "Why Study History?" (For more information, see https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/ahahistory-and-archives/archives/why-study-history-%281998%29.)

In this course, we will survey the history of the areas that now make up the political boundaries of the United States of America. We will start with the earliest records and professional theories concerning American civilization and continue through one of the most significant turning points in American culture and life-the American Civil War and its fallout.

The course grade will be calculated from a series of assessments and assignments, all of which are intended to engage your interest and provide context for interpreting the significance of landmark occasions, figures, and events. Some assignments, such as the assessments, encourage you to work while studying to ensure American History I the retention and accuracy of the information. Others, including the unit assignments, will ask GUIDE you to use your UNIT x STUDY general understanding of settings, attitudes, and events to become engaged in the time itself. More details will Title be available each step of the way.

Before starting any course, it is helpful to take the time to closely inspect the materials available to you. This course does not rely on any specifically assigned textbook, but instead will be led and directed primarily from these unit lessons, supported and enhanced by accompanying online and library resources. As we enter each unit, you will be directed concerning how and where to find these details, which will also come with an introduction to the online library and how to use an online digital database. For additional tips on success in the online classroom, US News' recent article, "5 Tips to Succeed in an Online Course," is worth a quick review. (For more information, see https://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/articles/2013/01/14/5tips-to-succeed-in-an-online-course).

The unit lesson in each unit study guide provides not only an overview of the different chronologies (including topics of significance), it also references suggested readings, activities, and resources that will prove helpful to your study and completion of course requirements. Please enjoy this course. Answers to common issues are provided in the announcements, but if there are questions or concerns, do not hesitate to contact your instructor.

Ancient America

It is best to start with an identification of the setting and timeline. While this course is titled American History, this is just a reference to modern United States political borders. The first few units of this course must explore a much wider world in order to introduce the nation's unique development. Be sure when reading not to confuse the meaning of current references to "America" and "the United States" in this course, because they are not synonymous.

America most often refers to a physical land mass, generally some part of the North or South American continents, the centralized land masses between them, and/or the accompanying islands, which are situated in the far west Atlantic and far east Pacific Oceans. The term United States, however, is a direct reference to a unified political entity of independent states, starting in 1776, with borders that will spread as our course progresses. This first unit will explore the events up to the year AD 1600 (present era) and describe the movements of cultures native to North, South, and Mesoamerica as well as the migration to, and creation of, European colonies in the "New World."

Scientists and historians continue to discover new evidence and develop new theories about the movement and development of cultures. Today, a popular hypothesis is that the sub-arctic region to the west of modern Alaska, now known as the Bering Straits, was once a solid mass of land that connected the modern continents of Asia and North America until approximately 14,000 BC. It is via this land mass, known today as Beringia (see Figure 1 below), that the first "native" tribes are thought to have migrated into the Americas, eventually spreading through the north, central, and southern regions. (For more information, please see https://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/saturdayextra/story.html?id=2a31375e-e834-407d-b8db2a0010ad4acf.)

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Figure 1- Beringia. (Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin.)

This theory is most commonly attributed to a Jesuit missionary named José de Acosta (d. 1600), whose scientific writings were among the most celebrated of his time. Acosta, however, was still subject to his time, and due to this, his is not the exclusive hypothesis explaining the migration to this New World. It is, however, important to reiterate that most cultural histories have been pieced together by historians, as the nomadic tribes left few records. Similarly, traditions were passed orally from generation to generation until the invention/introduction of writing.

With the assumption that what motivated the first peoples in the Americas was migration from Asia in search of food and other basic necessities, historians agree with Acosta that the earliest migration took place somewhere between 15,000-14,000 BC. Currently available artifacts, including tools, weapons, and cultural markings, help to further illustrate this movement from North to South America. An example is the Clovis culture in the modern state of New Mexico, recognized for the unique shape of its hunting tools and their age-circa 10,000-9,000 BC. Foraging in the Americas would be a necessity for many tribes, even years after European colonization, but the large-scale migration would decrease with the discovery of agriculture as a supplement to the daily diet and the use of pottery as a way to preserve and store excess materials and food (ca. 4000 BC).

With settlement came population centers, and eventually the advent of semi-permanent political, religious, and trade influenced organizations of numerous families-what we now recognize as a tribe. Tribes would spread and appear throughout the Americas after 4000 BC. Even with common ancestry, tribal cultures would adapt to the climate and resources available. Over time, this led to wide differences among tribes in religion, government, and social roles, specifically when looking in the North American Southwest, South, and Northeast. As complex and durable as these tribal societies had become, shortly before AD 1500, their world would be changed by European exploration.

American History I

Tribes and Settlements (links to enlarging these maps can be found in Suggested Readings)

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Native American cultural maps show clearly distinguished cultural and tribal regions, some of which would rely on each other for support in harsh climates, while others feuded over land and supplies (see Figure 2 below). Assuming the accuracy of two of the most common migration patterns, Beringia and similar boatdriven expeditions further south, it is understandable why some of the oldest remains are found in what is now the American West, such as Clovis, and in the Great Plains-both of which we will cover in greater detail during discussions about expansion. Considering the rising interest that would come from early European exploration, it is important to also highlight some of the key regions that would soon become disputed settlement territories and the sites of frontier conflict.

Figure 2- Early Indian Tribes, Cultures, Areas, and Linguistic Stock. (Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin.)

(Cronau, 1967a; Cronau, 1967b)

Starting in the American Northwest, what was commonly seen in the pre-colonization period was a wide array of hunter-gatherer and craftsmen-led tribes. Seen within this area was a land of many metals, almost unending resources, and great offerings from the water and sea, including fish and whale oil. As is true with any abundance, though, once word of such great promise was known, soon those native to the lands were not alone. As colonization and statehood erupted in the East, these regions would draw wide attention from numerous other nations and persons willing to brave the wild to secure their share of the resources. This is a topic that will be further discussed with Western Expansion and Manifest Destiny later in the course.

Directly to the south would again be the site of some of the oldest native markings and permanent settlements. In addition to the Clovis relics, the tribes that would settle this land, most notably the Pueblo, Navajo, and Hopi (to name a few), would boast a vibrant culture with great reverence to the sky and sun. Compared to their northern and eastern neighbors, however, they would also be wary of close neighbors due to the need for wide areas to hunt and limited natural resources. This region continues to be one of great permanence; the Pueblo, for example, occupy the oldest continually occupied cities in what is now the United States. Colonization for tribes in this region would be heavily influenced by Spanish and tribal aggression and discovery, which are topics that will be revisited in later units.

To the northeast, including what is now parts of Canada and the United States, there would be a range of settlements, but two major cultures would emerge: the Algonkian (Algonquian) and the Iroquois. As can be seen in the map above, the Algonquian settlements would dominate much of the coastal regions, which would see the first English settlements (as we will discuss in Unit II). The Iroquois lands would quickly become.

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Disputed territory between the settlers and ancient tribes, each looking for lands to extend

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Though impossible to say everything here, common aspects of these northeastern tribes would be their hunting and fishing prowess as well as their sometimes hostile reaction to outsiders, especially surrounding land claims due to their farming needs to survive in the unforgiving climate. There is clear evidence that this culture descended from the Clovis tribes, as can be seen in their weapons and tools, but these tribes would also be prosperous farmers of gourds, beans, corn, and even tobacco. Because of the agriculture, these tribes were not generally nomadic, meaning that their shelter was often sturdy enough for the harsh realities of the climate, and that any moves followed the need for agriculture.

Finally, to the south-this would prove to be another lush and highly prized region for its abundant natural resources and perfect soil. The tribes of this region would, like those in the Pacific Northwest, thrive on hunting and gathering, and the climate would not require as much preparation for devastating seasons. Unlike in the Pacific Northwest, however, these offerings would quickly be coveted by European explorers. The native tribes, including the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole, would face one of the most devastating removals in American history.

As the first colonization attempts of this region would be limited largely to the wealthiest landowners, population did not quickly boom. With the concern of disease, West African slavery would become the prominent labor force for most Europeans, rather than Native Americans. Soon, however, either due to interference, land claims, or simply fear, these largely friendly tribes would be tried and forced into violence, a topic for a later unit.

Spain, Europe's First Influence

When considering the motivations for European influence in the Americas, three major concepts need to be considered: God, gold, and glory. With each of these, it is important to consider the varied locations, reasons, and outcomes from individual voyages.

European colonization, like the spread of Native American migrants, would be heavily influenced by the needs and desires of an older society. However, unlike the former, this expansion across the Atlantic Ocean would not start from the need for food, but from the aforementioned, arguably more complex, draw of God, gold, and glory.

While tribes were prospering in America, European societies were experiencing constant change and recovering from disasters such as widespread disease and unceasing war. The 1400s started an era of invention, innovation, and learning. Motivation for these advancements was fueled by successes in trade, influence of religion, and powerful monarchs with absolute authority over their people and lands. Perhaps no nation illustrated these traits better than Spain, who, led by Ferdinand and Isabella, would finance many of the paramount voyages across the Atlantic to "discover" a new world, while also looking for faster routes to established trading partners in Eastern Asia.

Though each of the complex desires was present throughout the exploration of the Americas, it is possible to break down the types of exploration by looking at their figures of legacy. We will start with a look at navigation. Columbus was, in his time, a brilliant navigator, but he also had access to equipment his predecessors did not. This equipment included simplified ways to steer large vessels, labor-saving methods for capturing favorable winds, and advanced tools for measuring distance and mapping constellations. It was with these tools that he, and numerous successors, would first explore the largely undeveloped American lands, and the race for "available" land began.

Despite his utmost convictions, it would not be until after Columbus' death that American lands were understood not to be connected to Eastern Asia, but it did not take long for farming, mining, and other raw materials to become highly prized by the European monarchs. It was this interest that would lead to intentional colonization in the Americas (see Figure 3 below).

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Figure 3-Conquest of Mexico. (Courtesy of the University of

Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin.)

Exploration would come next. Spain continued to dominate exploration and the establishment of trade and conquest routes to and from the Americas through the 16th century by successfully spreading its influence throughout the Americas, eastern coast, and west while other powers, such as England and France, continued to focus on European matters.

It was during this time that explorers, such as Hernando de Soto, Hernan Cortes, and Amerigo Vespucci, would take their place in history by exploring for the Spanish Crown and spreading the Catholic faith at every port. In addition to simply providing a service to the financier, other motivations arose as explorations became frequent and new cultures were found. Two prime examples of motivations for explorations come from legends, such as the Fountain of Youth and the city of gold, El Dorado, which fascinated and motivated this largely religious and demanding society.

Perhaps the most significant motivator, though, would be religion itself. This was a dangerous time for the Catholic Church, and the discovery of whole new societies and cultures only challenged the faithful-to claim and spread the teachings of the Church was of paramount importance. However, others would soon seek to find a land where they were free to practice any faith they chose.

Starting in 1517, religion would renew its motivation for colonization, but this time in Europe. Fueled by a cultural movement against controversial ritualistic practices by the Catholic Church, scripture-heavy doctrines spread like wildfire throughout much of Western Europe under the leadership of reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych (Ulrich) Zwingli.

Starting in 1562, France would have one of the most visible religious waves early on, in the form of the Huguenots. These Calvinists, initially led by Jean Ribault, would first emerge in North America, around the location of modern Brooklyn. They were seeking religious freedom from Catholic France and would find a welcome and prosperous trade network along the lengths of the Mississippi River, including large populations in northern Acadia and the Southeastern delta. We will pick up on this in the next unit.

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Lastly, we look at conquest. An unforeseen consequence was the introduction of widespread disease, most notably smallpox, among the Native Americans, killing millions and crippling once powerful empires. Looking back, there are two major figures who exemplified these actions: Cortes and Pizarro.

In 1520, under false pretenses, Hernan Cortes would be granted permission to conquer the region now known as Veracruz, Mexico, and the myth-like Mexica (also known as Aztec) led by Montezuma II. Cortes wanted the fabled riches that prior explorers had marveled about, and which had perhaps led to the earliest rumors of El Dorado.

Hernan Cortes

(Mcapdevila, 2011)

Only a few years later, in what is now Peru, was another thriving civilization: the Inca. Francisco Pizarro, with much of the same intent as Cortez, sought the legendary riches and power from such a conquest.

However, despite the destruction from these conquests, the truest killer would be disease, which both men would eventually need to capitalize on to finish their efforts and leave their intended mark.

The fallout from both would be interestingly poetic. After establishing the modern capitol of Lima, Peru, Pizarro was assassinated by the family of someone he previous assassinated. Cortez, as a result of becoming too powerful, was essentially stripped of any power as a leader and died soon after. His last attempts to solidify a positive legacy, the discovery of a passage between the two American oceans, was a failure.

Francisco Pizarro

(Kimse, 2008)

It was these outcomes that outlined much of Spain's influence in the Americas. The descendent generations would continue to spread Spanish culture, including Catholicism, and the Spanish government would keep a tight hold on premium shipping areas, including Florida, but would not engage in much of the same colonization effort as their fellow European neighbors, hoping instead to monopolize access to established trade.

A Closing Note

So far, this lesson has briefly introduced the earliest accounts of recorded history and finished with a glimpse of the earliest European exploration attempts on record. As this course continues, we will build on this foundation, periodically out of strict chronological order, in the attempt to introduce concepts and bring to light the significance of these events and historical study as a whole.

It is important to remember that with much of historical study, especially with records and accounts as timeworn as these, differences in, and even arguments concerning, interpretation are not rare; in fact, they are encouraged. The study of history is a living discipline, and for that reason it is important to consider multiple perspectives, including your own interpretation, when reviewing for and preparing your assignments.

It is encouraged to challenge yourself to consider multiple views, perspectives, and points of view while in this course. Use your assignments to show off your understanding of the topic as well as your interpretations, with rationale. We will pick up in the next unit with European colonization.

References

Beringia. (n.d.). [Demographic map]. Retrieved from

https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/national_parks/beri_past95.jpg

Conquest of Mexico 1519. (n.d.). [Demographic map]. Retrieved from

https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/conquest_mexico_1519_21.jpg

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https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/early_indian_east.jpg;

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https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/early_indian_west.jpg

Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pizarro.jpg

Mcapdevila. (2011). Hernan Fernando Cortes.jpg [Graphic]. Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hernan_Fernando_Cortes.jpg

Cronau. (1967a). Early Indian east [Demographic map]. Retrieved from Cronau. (1967b). Early Indian west [Demographic map]. Retrieved from Kimse. (2008). Pizarro.jpg [Graphic].

Suggested Reading

To read more about the life and times of conquistador Hernando Cortes, please view the following:

Hernando Cortes (1485-1547). (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cortes_hernan.shtml

To read more about the life and times of explorer and conquistador Francisco Pizarro, please view the following:

Francisco Pizarro. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.biography.com/people/francisco-pizarro-9442295

To read about the history and impact of the caravel, please check out the following:

History of the caravel. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/01George/caravela/htmls/Caravel History.htm

Learning Activities (Non-Graded)

Flash cards

For a review of the key terms of the unit, click here to access the interactive Unit I Flashcards in PowerPoint form. (Click here to access a PDF version.)

Non-graded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. You do not have to submit them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further guidance and information.